Mexico Trip Report¹

April 19-25, 1998

This is a report on a trip taken by Pacific Northwest extension and research faculty, wheat growers and the Oregon Wheat Commission Administrator to the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT - Centro Internacional Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo) near Ciudad Obregon, Mexico. Participants were Susan Aldrich-Markham (OSU-CES), John Bassinette (OSU-AES), Mike Burke (OSU-AES), Gordon Cook (OSU-CES), Dick Fritz (OWC), Gale Gingrich (OSU-CES), Mark Hales (grower and OWGL), Jack Hay (grower and OWC), Maurie Johns (grower), Russ Karow (OSU-CES), Kathryn Kettel (OSU-CES), Kent Madison, (grower and OWGL), Mark Mellbye (OSU-CES), Bill Payne (OSU-AES), Sonnia Rowe (OSU-AES), Larry Smith (UI-CES), Mike Stoltz (OSU-CES), Rod Todd (OSU-CES), Frank Tubbs (grower), Mary Verhoeven (OSU-AES), and Don Wysocki (OSU-CES).

The objectives of the trip were to learn about 1) CIMMYT per se; 2) crop production in northwest Mexico in general and 3) research activities at CIMMYT. This report is presented in outline format and addresses key points about each trip objective.

CIMMYT

Background

CIMMYT is one of 16 international agricultural research centers located around the world. Each center has responsibility for conducting research on specific food crops, animal or fish resources or agricultural practices - irrigation techniques, food policy, bioengineering, etc. Centers are listed below:

CIAT - Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

CIFOR - Center for International Forestry Research

CIMMYT - Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo

CIP - Centro Internacional de la Papa

ICARDA - International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

ICLARM - International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management

ICRAF - International Centre for Research in Agroforestry

ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute

IIMI - International Irrigation Management Institute

IITA - International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

ILRI - International Livestock Research Institute

IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

IRRI - International Rice Research Institute

ISNAR - International Service for National Agricultural Research

WARDA - West Africa Rice Development Association

______

¹ This report was written by Russ Karow with input from tour participants. The facts and figures are correct to the best of our collective knowledge but subject to errors in note taking. Most production information was given to us in pesos, Kg, MT and Ha. We have assumed an exchange rate of 8.4 pesos per US dollar, 2.47 acres per Ha, 2205 English pounds per metric ton and 60 pounds per bushel to make the unit conversions given.

World need for food and food research is ever growing. Jesse Dubin indicated that CIMMYT economists and sociologists estimate that a 3% per year increase in world wheat production will be needed over the next decades to meet world food demands. For more information on CIMMYT, see its web page at http://www.cimmyt.mx. For more information about other international centers see the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) web page at http://www.cgiar.org.

CIMMYT and CIANO (Agricultural Research Center of the Northwest - Centro de Investigaciones Agricolas del Noroeste) have adjoining facilities at a site just outside Ciudad Obregon. CIANO is one of eight agricultural regional centers in Mexico operated by the Ministry of Agriculture. A number of experiment stations are associated with each center. There are 13 in Northwest Mexico affiliated with CIANO, six in Sonora alone.

Agricultural research in Sonora started in 1934 with the establishment of a research center near Ciudad Obregon. The Mexican government operated this center. In 1943 the Rockerfeller Foundation entered into a cooperative agreement with the Mexican government to increase agricultural production in Mexico. Norman Borlaug was hired as part of this effort and came to Ciudad Obregon in 1945 to find the station there in a dilapidated state. He worked over the next decades to build the station to be one of the best in the world. CIANO per se was established in 1955, CIMMYT in 1966. Its goal is to develop sustainable wheat and maize cropping systems for the poor of the world.

Oregon's involvement with CIMMYT began in 1968. Dr. Warren Kronstad and the late Dr. Tom Jackson were asked by Norman Borlaug to go to Turkey to work with researchers there on crop production techniques. This relationship was very successful and initiated Oregon's role in international wheat development. These efforts were strengthened in 1971 when Dr. Joe Rupert (a student of Norman Borlaug's) moved his spring x winter crossing program from California to Corvallis. Dr. Kronstad assumed responsibility for this program shortly thereafter following Dr. Rupert's untimely death. The strength of the CIMMYT Oregon tie has been the shuttle breeding effort between programs in the winter x spring materials and the training of graduate students. Several CIMMYT researchers commented that trained people have been as great an achievement of CIMMYT as the lines released by the program. CIMMYT scientists estimate that 85% of spring wheats currently grown in developing countries have resulted from CIMMYT breeding efforts.

Dr. Bob Metzger and Mat Kolding also have long and productive ties with the CIMMYT triticale and disease programs. Wolfgang Pfeiffer commented to us that much of the genetic material currently in the triticale program has direct ties back to these two researchers.

Today CIMMYT has a worldwide program with over two hundred scientists and staff members. One third of CIMMYT staff are located in developing countries outside Mexico. Program offices are located in 15 countries around the world. CIMMYT approaches the problem of developing varieties for the world by dividing the world into megaenvironments - areas with similar ecological and production opportunities and constraints. Twelve megaenvironments have been identified - six spring, three facultative and three winter. Examples are spring wheat ME1- favorable, irrigated, low rainfall (areas like Sonora); spring ME2 - high rainfall (>500 mm) during the cropping season (areas like El Batan); facultative ME9 - semi-arid, low rainfall, moderately cold (areas like eastern Oregon). Researchers at CIMMYT conduct studies at experiment stations located in areas typical of these megaenvironments or try to create such environments through irrigation and planting date manipulations at Obregon.

Economic estimates of the return on investment of international dollars in CIMMYT are in the range of 200%. Some individuals in developed countries criticize program like CIMMYT because they increase the amount of grain produced in the world, increase competition and thereby decrease grain prices. But as Jesse Dubin pointed out, "beggars make poor importers." If world economies as a whole can be improved, there will be greater trade at all levels which will bolster all economies. CIMMYT and other international centers like it are powerful forces for a better world.

Crop Production in Northwest Mexico

Geography and Natural Resources

CIMMYT is located in Sonora, one of 31 states in Mexico. Sonora is situated in the Pacific Northwest region of Mexico and adjoins Arizona on the north, Chihuahua on the east, Sinaloa on the south and the Gulf of California on the west. Sonora is the second largest state in Mexico covering 70,291 sq. miles. Chihuahua is the largest state at 94,571. Oregon, by comparison, has an area of 97,073 square miles.

The region has a hot, arid, continental climate. The average low temperature for the year is 54F (12C) with a 31F (-1C) recorded low. The average high temperature is 97F (36C) with 112F (44.2C) as the recorded high. Relative humidity varies from 54 to 77 percent. Average rainfall is 10.6 inches (269 mm). Highest rainfall months are November (0.4 inch; 11 mm), December (0.8 inch; 21 mm) and January (0.8 inch; 20 mm). The Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains lie just to the east of the Yaqui Valley and are the source of the irrigation water. These peaks rise to over 9800 feet (3000 m) and receive 31 inches (800 mm) of annual precipitation.

Soils in the region are alluvial deposits ranging from heavy clay-loams (60% of soils) to loams (30%) to sands (10%). Sandy soils are found closest to the rivers and oceans. The clays exhibit typical shrink-swell with two-inch wide, greater than foot deep cracks common when dry. Organic matter levels are approximately one percent.

Agriculture has always been the dominant economic activity of the region. Production at the turn of the century was dryland with most production in the active flood plains. Local growers built a river-fed irrigation canal in 1920 and shortly thereafter hired an irrigation company from California to develop a gravity irrigation system for the entire valley. Land in the district is divided into 400 Ha (988 acre) blocks, each consisting of forty 10-Ha (24.7 acre) units. Two main canals feed the system - the upper and lower canals. These are fed from reservoirs on the Yaqui and Mayo Rivers. The main canals run roughly north and south with feeder canals running east and west.

The Yaqui irrigation project encompasses 233,110 Ha (575,780 acres), the Mayo 114,000 (281,580 acres) and the Yaqui Indian Reservation 49,630 (122,590) for a total valley hectarage of about 400,000 (988,000 acres). The Yaqui irrigation project consists of three reservoirs and 339 wells. The reservoirs are created by earth and stone dams with cement facing. The reservoirs can hold 2,940 million cubic meters (2.4 mil acre-ft) of water while the wells provide an additional 450 million m3 (0.36 mil acre-ft). The Mayo has one reservoir (860 million m³ - 0.7 mil acre-ft) and 129 wells (150 million m³ - 0.12 acre-ft). The water table is shallow (@ 3m- 9.8 ft) and the groundwater is salty. Wells are used to lower the water table level rather than to provide irrigation water per se. Electricity costs are high hence well irrigation per se is not practical at this time. Local water use law prohibits reuse of tail water so inflow to fields is carefully monitored. Tail water empties via canal into the Gulf of California and tends to be high in nitrates.

Total capacity of the irrigation project is roughly 4.4 billion m³ (3.6 mil acre-ft) annually or 1.1 m³ per m² of land in the projects (3.6 ft/a). Project water is used for both agriculture and urban uses. Each year project managers determine water levels and allocate available water for agriculture. Growers are given a specific amount of water for their farm acreage. This water may be used on any acreage on a farm but may not be used by another farmer or on another farm owned by a farm family. Water is delivered on a volume x time basis. There is an annual charge for agricultural water use of 200 pesos per Ha ($9.60US/a) per year (including an 8 peso ($0.95US) research assessment that goes to a district research advisory board for distribution). Water supplies have been limited the last five years. In 1998 spring reservoir capacity was estimated to be 16%. Most agriculturists indicated that few summer crops would be planted due to the limited water supply.

Land itself is owned either by individuals or groups. Private owners hold forty percent of lands in the Yaqui project (94,560 hectares; 233,565 acres). Individuals may own 100 hectares (247 acres) at most under current Mexican law but an extended family group may collectively own up to 2500 hectares (6175 acres). Average private farm size is 70 hectares (173 acres). Fifty six percent of Yaqui project land (130,180 Ha; 321,545 acres) is held in ejitos. Ejitos are cooperative farms where families live in small rural villages surrounded by the acreage held by the ejito. Land was given to ejitos during the last land reform. Typical acreage for an individual in an ejito is 7-10 Ha 17 - 25 acres). We were told by many that this is not an economically viable acreage and that recent land ownership law changes were allowing ejitos to sell land to private landowners. The remaining four- percent of acreage is owned by privately owned, cooperative farms called colonias. Land ownership in the Mayo project is roughly the same.

Land sells for roughly 85,000 pesos per hectare or $4100 US per acre, but little land is available for sale. Many larger growers will lease land and some have entered into 25-year contracts. Some we spoke with thought this was foolish, as history would indicate that land reform will occur when individuals again control significant acreages whether owned or leased. The last major reform was in 1976. Land is leased on a crop cycle basis with three cycles possible if water is available. A one-cycle lease is $1500 pesos per Ha ($72US/acre), a full year $2500 pesos ($120US/acre). Water rights cost an additional 200 pesos per hectare per crop cycle (@$10US/acre).

Crop and Crop Rotations

Wheat, food corn, cotton, safflower, soybean and sorghum are the traditional field crops of the area. Vegetables including potatoes, melons, peppers, lettuce, tomatoes, onions, garlic and brassicas are grown on some acreage. Tropical fruits such as mangos and papayas are grown in orchards. Yaqui Valley acreage estimates for 1997 are as follows: wheat, 130,000 Ha (321,100 a); fall sown corn, 62,340 Ha (154,000 a); summer sown corn, 10,975 (27,100 a); spring sown corn, 5750 Ha (14,200 a); cotton, 4800 Ha (11,900 a); soybean, 2800 Ha (6,900 a); safflower, 2000 Ha (4900 a); sorghum, 900 Ha (2200 a); and vegetables, 100 Ha (247 a). Two-thirds of the wheat is durum grown for export to Italy. Hard red wheats (bread wheats) had dominated acreage until 1992 but the higher value of durum, better disease resistance (leaf and stem rusts) and ready access to a shipping port at Guaymas has moved growers toward durum production.

Up to three crops can be grown in a given year if water is available. Fall sown corn is planted in mid-August-September and wet harvested in January-February (25% moisture) or dry harvested in April-May. Wet harvested corn must be dried to 14% moisture for storage. Wheat is planted in September-November and harvested in April-May. Summer corn in planted in late-April or early May and harvested in July. Soybean, cotton, and safflower are typically planted following wet-harvest corn. Sorghum is planted after corn if irrigation water is available. Fruit and vegetable crops varying in planting date from November through March with March through July harvests.

Typical rotations include wheat-soybean, wheat-safflower-cotton, corn-sorghum-corn, safflower-wheat-corn-vegetables, and vegetables-wheat-corn-soybean. Wheat-soybean has been the preferred rotation but white fly has become a serious problem in recent years and limited both soybean and cotton acreage. Resistant soybean and cotton varieties are being developed. Wheat-corn rotations are being used but diseases may be problematic.

Production Practices

Table 1 below shows average yields, prices, cash costs of production (no overhead, land charge or equipment depreciation expenses).

Table 1. Metric-unit yields, crop value, cost of production and margins for major field crops – 1997

Table 1. English-unit yields, crop value, cost of production and margins for major field crops - 1997

Cotton is by far the most profitable crop but whitefly and lack of irrigation water make production impossible or inherently more risky. Rains at maturity can also discolor the fiber and significantly reduce crop value. Wheat is the next most profitable crop. 1390 pesos ($4.50/bu) is the current domestic price. 1600 ($5.18/bu) is the price growers would like to receive, 1200 ($3.88/bu) current world price. We were told that the current government subsidy was 556 peso/Ha ($26.80 US/a) per year but it was unclear in what form this subsidy was provided. The subsidy is to phase out in seven years.

Wheat production has changed significantly over the past twenty years. Table 2 shows changes in major production practices.

Table 2. Changes in wheat management practices in the Yaqui Valley, Sonora, Mexico, 1998-1994

The biggest change has been a shift from traditional field preparation to a bed planting system. In this system beds are formed and then pre-plant irrigated or rainfall wetted to sprout weeds. Just prior to planting the beds are reshaped, which also serves as cultivation for weed control. Another cultivation may be done before canopy closure. Through these combined cultivations, and use of limited hand weeding (40 pesos, $5US per day plus labor union specified benefits), some growers have eliminated use of herbicides in wheat production! Beds are typically 70-80 cm (28-31 inches) wide with two wheat rows [20 cm (8 inches) apart] planted on each. All researchers indicated that yields had remained stable or increased slightly under the bed system and that water use efficiency could be increased. In the wheat-soybean rotation some growers are burning their wheat stubble and planting into the same beds with slight reshaping.

Nitrogen management has also changed. Where common practices had been to apply most nitrogen (N) prior to planting, some growers are now putting 15-20% of their required N pre-plant and the remainder at the elongation stage (Feekes 5-6, Zadoks 31). Some research evidence suggests that early N stress may increase yield, but also that it narrows the N application window at elongation. Typical nitrogen rates for durum production are 225-250 kg/ha (200 - 225 lb/a). Most growers still put 75% of their N out pre-plant.

Seeding rates have also been reduced in the bed system. Conventional seeding rates have been 130 kg/Ha (116 lb/a) but an average rate for beds is 90 (80 lb/a) with rates as low as 50-60 (44-53 lb/a) sometimes successful. Ken Sayre, CIMMYT Agronomist, and others have observed differences in variety performance in the bed versus conventional system. Short, compact, low-tillering varieties do not do well on beds. Taller, high-tillering varieties do well in both systems provided straw strength is maintained. Dr. Oscar Moreno Ramos, Agronomist with INIFAP (the Mexican equivalent of USDA-ARS) suggested that an even lower seeding rate could be used – 8-12 kg/Ha (7-11 lb/a). His studies showed additional savings in water, N and P under a low seeding rate system. A 10 kg/Ha (9 lb/a) seeding rate with seed at 22,000 seeds per kg (10,000/lb) would result in 220,000 plants per Ha (90,000 plants/a). He indicated that the tillering rate is typically 8-10 tillers/plant, which would give a final head count of 220 heads per m2 (185 heads/sq yd). This count is much lower than the 400-420 head/m2 (335-350 heads/sq yd) value we were given by others as needed to optimize yield. The idea of the low seeding rates seemed improbable in general. Dr. Wolfgang Pfeiffer, durum wheat and past triticale breeder, verified that 90 kg/ha (80 lb/a) was a typical seeding rate and that head counts per m2 for durum, bread wheat and triticale were 420, 550 and 350, respectively (350, 460, and 295/sq yd). At typical seeding rates, a tillering rate of 1.1 is normal.

Water use rates were high. We were told that as much as four acre-feet of water were used to grow a wheat crop - four irrigations of a foot each. A more typical value is 2.5-acre feet. There is interest in reduced irrigation systems for wheat production. Dr. Ramos indicated that in such systems the first irrigation, after a light preplant irrigation, was typically 60-75 days post-plant with a final irrigation 25-25 days after the first. Water shortages will force growers to consider such systems.

Grower Credit Unions and Marketing

We had an opportunity to visit Grupo Cajeme, a Farmers Organization, in Ciudad Obregon. There are seven such organizations in south Sonora. Each was created primarily to provide credit services to members, but other services such as crop storage, fertilizers, chemicals, seed and insurance are available. Grupo Cajeme has 492 members with 12,000 (29,640 acres) owned and 6000 to 8000 (14,820 - 19,760 acres) leased hectares. Most acreage is in durum wheat with some maize and safflower also grown.

The group actually consists of four separate companies – the credit association, a company that owns the grain handling and storage facilities, a fertilizer/chemical company and an insurance group. A single board oversees all four companies. Farmers pay 62 pesos/ha/yr (@$3US/a) to be group members. The group is a non-profit and uses profits for infrastructure development. Patronage dividends are not paid. Approximately 50 percent of administrative costs are paid through this membership fee.

As group members, farmers can obtain production credit loans but are also then obligated to sell their grain through the group. Farmers are classified by credit history into ABCD categories. All groups receive the same loan rate but farmers in groups C and D must carry insurance. The Grupo obtains loans from national banks and adds @6%. Grupo Cajeme currently has an agreement with Cargill for credit. Apparently Cargill underwrites their loan at the national bank in US dollars, a more stable currency than pesos. Current loan rates are 14-15%. Small farmers, those with less than 50 Ha (124 a), tend to have the best credit records. Crop loans have land as collateral. Approximately 70% of a crop loan is paid out in the first two months of the crop cycle and the rest in two draws controlled by technical advisors employed by Cajeme. If you are not following recommended crop production practices you may not get the additional draws on your loan!

Forty eight percent of members have less than 50 Ha (124 a). Achieving production efficiency on such limited acreage is difficult hence Cajeme recently purchased a large tractor (220 hp John Deere 8400 with plow, chisel, disk for $153,000US) for these members to lease. Growers in general have grain custom combined. Ten family-run, custom harvesting operations are presently in south Sonora. A John Deere 9600 without a cab costs about $106,000 US.

Commercial and Industrial Cajeme owns the grain handling facilities. They have 75,000 MT (2.75 mil bu) of storage capacity in four banks, each bank consisting of 10-12 silos. Seven silos have aeration systems for long-term storage. Three are specially designed to handle wet corn. They own three grain dryers and cleaners, and a railroad loading spur with a rail car scaling system. Receiving capacity in three of the four silo banks is 120 MT/hr (4400 bu/hr). They have 5000 MT (184,000 bu) of flat storage capacity for specialty crops or special crop quality storage (good or bad) and for bulk seed handling.

The fertilizer/chemical company is called Agroinsumos. It was started in 1957 and has a 3000 MT (3300 ton) solid and 1000 MT (1100 ton) liquid fertilizer capacity. Agroinsumos entered into a 50-50 joint venture with Wilbur-Ellis in 1996 in order to obtain more competitive prices in the world market. This relationship has been productive to date. This company will offer expanded technical advice to growers as part of a company service program. Diesel costs 3 pesos per liter ($1.35US/gal). Aqua ammonia is 2600 pesos per metric ton ($280US/ton). Urea and other dry fertilizer prices are similar to those in the states, as this is the source of these materials.

The fourth company in Grupo Cajeme is an insurance group that provides crop insurance underwritten by the Mexican government. Insurance is required of C and D category wheat farmers and those growing other crops. Insurance costs @$18 US per Ha for a multi-peril type insurance. Frost damage on corn, fire, and emergence failure are the most common types of losses. Cajeme itself has just started to uses options, in conjunction with Cargill, to fix a price on 3 MT/Ha (45 bu/a) of export durum.

All member grain is stored and shipped by the group. We were told there is no on-farm storage in Sonora at this time and we did not see on-farm bins. Group members may sell outside the group but only with prior permission. Under the marketing agreement with Cargill, 90% of the expected export grain price is paid to the group when the crop enters the facility. The other 10% is paid when the grain is loaded on the ships in Guaymas. Cargill becomes owner of the grain on delivery to the elevator and pays Cajeme a storage and handling fee. Growers are given regular crop payments once Cargill pays.

Durum wheat is held less than two months. Bread wheat may be held as long as four months. With aeration, storage for this period is not a problem. Corn is held less than two months and 60% of the crop is typically sold prior to harvest. Safflower is sold to a mill in Horonas and is generally all sold before harvest. Wheats is general are preferred by Cajeme members as it has lower labor involvement, lower credit requirements and is less risky to grow from an environmental stress standpoint.

We were told that the Cajeme group currently accounts for 50% of durum exports from Mexico. Grain is trucked from Obregon to Guaymas at a price of 70 pesos per MT ($0.23US/bu). Ocean vessel transport to Italy is $23US/MT on vessels that average 25,000 MT (918,750 bu) in size. The largest vessels that can be currently loaded are 57,000 MT (2.1 mil bu). Shipment of grain to Mexico City mills is more expensive than shipping for export. A private agency does grain inspections. Each truck entering the facility is samples and analyzed for the same quality factors we access in the states including grain protein. Trucks headed to Guaymas are also inspected.

Separation of grain by quality characteristics is as recent development in Sonora as in the Pacific Northwest. Durum wheat was once considered to be pig feed, hence breeding for quality is a new realm as well. The Italians have developed a set of protein classes for use in the 1998 crop – 11.21-11.90, 11.91-12.30, 12.31+ at 12% moisture. The recent protein average for the region is 11.3, hence the bottom class of the system. Cajeme will be paid premiums for grain at higher protein levels. Pedro Brajcich, our host at Cajeme, along with the Grupo Cajeme Director Alejandro Elias Calles Lacy were in the process of trying to figure out how to pass these premiums along to grower members. They were struggling with this process as we have in the PNW. A Minnesota-based pasta company affiliated with Cargill is planning to build a mill in the area (Sonora or nearby in the US). They had contracted for a 2000 MT (73,500 bu) durum shipment this year. Their premium structure is more similar to that we’d expect to see in the Northern Plains but still low by US standards– 12.00-12.49, 12.5-12.99, 13.00-13.49, 13.5+.

System Changes, Opportunities and Constraints

CIMMYT and CIANO Research Program Highlights

The following are key points raised by scientists in the research programs we visited at CIMMYT and CIANO.

Agronomy - Dr. Ken Sayre

Dr. Sayre has done key research into the bed production system (see Crop Production section above). Driving factors toward use of this system were herbicide resistant weeds that can be controlled with mechanical tillage, reduced time between crops if beds are maintained between crops in a growing season, improved water use efficiency and reduced disease levels. Nitrogen use was not necessarily reduced but may be as this practice is further refined. He is working on using no-till planting with the bed system. Currently most area growers burn wheat straw and corn stubble after harvest but leaving straw should improve soil tilth and may lead to better nutrient.

Pathology - Dr. Guillermo Fuentes

Research activities focus on Karnal bunt. They have identified a number of resistance genes, both dominant and recessive types, and are pyramiding these genes into advanced lines. Resistance genes have been found in material from China, India, Pakistan and Brazil. Their work on bunt biology has shown that increased nitrogen rates and plant density increase the level of KB. The bed production system reduces KB incidence likely due to better airflow through the canopy. They have evidence to show that infested seed does not increase the level of KB observed in fields - soil-borne inoculum is the key. Methyl bromide fumigation is 100 percent effective if the soil is at the right moisture level. They are conducting a joint study with US APHIS to determine what soil-borne spore load levels are necessary to cause disease. Data collected to date shows that massive numbers of spores (millions per m2) are needed in the soil to get natural infection of plants. They are collecting another year’s data on these trials and hope to publish their results after this season.

Bread Wheat - Drs. Richard Treethowan & Janny Van Beem

Bread wheats are being bred for all of the megaenvironments of the world - low production to high. Disease, lodging and environmental stress resistance are key factors in the program. A shuttle breeding approach is used moving materials between the irrigated, high-yield, low disease pressure environment of Obregon and the high-rainfall, high disease environment in El Baton. Lodging resistance is a key factor in capturing yield potential. They have found that: 1) taller plants are not necessarily more prone to lodging; 2) light penetration into the crop canopy enhances lodging resistance; 3) strong but flexible stems (grass-like) are best versus very stiff-strawed varieties; 4) more nodes are better as nodes provide more stem strength than internodes - there is variation for internode number from 4 to 7 under simple genetic control- shorter internodes below and longer internodes above is desirable; and 5) increased cellulose levels increase stem strength but can make plants too stiff and susceptible to root lodging. They are running both drought and heat stress selection trials at Obregon by using limited irrigation and delayed plantings. They have assessed above ground growth to root biomass and found a 0.7 correlation in early growth stages. They are evaluating synthetic wheats (see below) and have found high levels of sprout resistance in white types but didn't know about the dormancy level of these lines. They do have lines with glume-based sprout resistance. Breeding for quality has become more important. "Grain surpluses in a country give buyers the luxury of being choosy."

Wheat Physiology - Matthew Reynolds

This program is focused on breaking the yield barriers by assessing the affect of drought and other abiotic stresses on wheat. They are trying to identify traits that can be selected in the F2-F3 generations so that poor materials don't have to be carried in the program. Ideotype selection involving phasic development of wheat is being assessed. Reynolds argues that if we can prolong the rapid spike growth phase of development then larger heads will be produced and yield potential automatically becomes greater. He is using an infrared gun to measure crop canopies in early generation material and finds that in irrigated conditions where moisture is not limiting that lines with the lowest crop canopy temperature consistently have the highest yield (r2 = 45%). Drought stress strategies being evaluated include deeper roots, roots with greater osmotic adjustment capability, higher levels of spike photosynthesis, heat tolerance per se and differing leaf morphologies. He too is looking at synthetic wheats as possible sources of heat and drought tolerance not presently found in the hexaploid wheat gene pool.

Synthetic Wheats - Reynaldo Villareal

The idea behind synthetic wheats is to systematically recreate hexaploid wheats rather than just accept the chance genetic variation that was packaged in hexaploids that developed naturally. The best CIMMYT durums (AB genomes) are being crossed with an array of Triticum taushii’s (D genome), and other D genome donors, to recreate hexaploid wheat (ABD). The embryos resulting from these crosses must be rescued and chromosomes doubled with colchicine, but then are fully fertile and compatible with other hexaploids. Genes for disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and altered crop physiology and development are being sought in the synthetics. Some unique quality characteristics are also being observed. Synthetics typically thresh harder than current hexaploids and have larger seed (42-65 g/1000). Advanced lines for testing in breeding, pathology, physiology and quality programs are being created by double backcrossing to a hexaploid bread wheat parent. The program is also doing some work in recreation of tetraploid durums.

Agronomy - Ivan Ortiz-Monasterio

Work on this project is done in cooperation with Ken Sayre and focuses on nutrient use efficiency. One of the factors evaluated is N-use by improved CIMMYT lines versus land races. A criticism of the international breeding programs like CIMMYT has been that they have released varieties that require higher nitrogen use and therefore favor large farmers who can afford nitrogen versus the small, poorer farmers who can not. This has been seen by some as a contradiction to CIMMYTs charge; however, the opposite seems to be true. Work by the group has shown that improved CIMMYT lines have better nitrogen uptake and utilization across nitrogen rate levels. At low nitrogen levels improved lines show better soil N uptake capabilities. At intermediate N levels both uptake and utilization are improved. At high N rates the utilization by improved lines is significantly better. A paper has been published on this work – Ortiz-Monasterio, I., K. Sayre, S. Rajaram and A. McMahon. 1997. Genetic progress in wheat yield and nitrogen use efficiency under four nitrogen rates. Crop Science 37:898-904. While this work shows that CIMMYT lines selected under high fertility conditions show improved performance over land races, several tour group members were of the opinion that greater progress in selection of lines with superior performance under very low nitrogen conditions could be made by selecting in a low nitrogen field environment. Some work is being done along these lines.

Ivan is also doing work on nitrogen timing per se and found that the common practice of putting most N prior to planting is inefficient. N15 studies have shown that over one third of the N applied pre-plant moves below the 1 m (3.3 ft) level in their soils prior to planting and is essentially lost from the system. He recommends a lower nitrogen rate per se (180 kg/Ha - 160 lb/a) with one third applied preplant and the remainder at elongation. He is also evaluating stem NO3 tests to predict nitrogen need as well as a spectral analysis "on the go" procedure for differential N applications in fields.

Boron toxicity is a problem in the area. It may be a result of high native levels of boron that have been concentrated due to irrigation practices and impervious layers in the soil. There are boron layers in some soils that inhibit root growth. This inhibition has been confused with other problems in the past – drought stress, disease, etc. – and they are just now testing all fields to be sure that they are not confounding test results.

Another project entails using cereals as a means to provide micronutrients to humans. Micronutrients are becoming a more critical human nutrition concern worldwide than protein and carbohydrates. They are assessing 800 land races, varieties, synthetics and other materials for micronutrient uptake ability. Iron content appears to be constant among materials. Zinc and phosphorous (P) levels vary and appear to be under some genetic control. Decrease in P may actually be beneficial as phytate levels decreases as well, which increases the availability of other micronutrients.

INIFAP Agronomy - Oscar Moreno Ramos

Dr. Ramos talked about the research they are doing in INIFAP to further reduce production costs in the bed planting system. See the seeding rate discussion under the Production Practice section above. Our general impression was that the changes Dr. Ramos was suggesting were so far from current practices that grower adoption was unlikely in the short term. Extensive on-farm testing and "proofing" will be required but if truly effective, production costs would be cut significantly.

Durum Wheat and Triticale - Wolfgang Pfeiffer

Dr. Pfeiffer had been head of the triticale program but has now been shifted to durum breeding. He spoke about both species. Durums are currently grown on 70 million HA (173 mil acres) world wide with an average yield of 1.7 MT/Ha (25 bu/a). Most production is on marginal land hence the lower yield level, but varieties being released can do well on more productive ground. Durums were brought into the Yaqui Valley by the Spanish as contaminants in bread wheat and were grown as a feed crop. Original land races had leaf rust resistance, which gave them an advantage over some of the bread wheats, but they were stem rust susceptible. The traditional focus of the breeding program has been disease resistance and yield. More recently protein content and other quality factors have gained importance for those areas where durum is being used for pasta or as an export crop. But the majority of durum is still used for tortillas, flat breads and other similar products and so pasta quality per se can not become a driving factor in the program. As lines destined for use in the Yaqui Valley type environment reach the near-release stage, they move into a series of agronomic trials designed to determine optimum production practices. Seeding rates, nitrogen rates and response to different seeding methods are evaluated. A group of growers run on-farm elite trials for the program. These are replicated, grower seeded-managed but researcher harvested trials. Contrary to what others have said, Wolfgang believes that the reduced input bed planting system has indeed reduced yields but that profitability has increased and that further reductions may be forthcoming.

Triticales are currently grown on 2.5-2.8 million Ha (6.2-6.9 mil acres) worldwide with acreage climbing. There is 500,000 HA (1.2 mil acres) in Germany alone where the crop is being used for forage and feed on-farm. Triticales have higher N-use efficiency than wheats and seem to have a higher yield potential as they have been able to break the 10 MT/Ha (150 bu/a) level in the Yaqui Valley with triticales. Baking studies indicate that up to 25% triticale flour can be added to bread wheat flour without altering baking properties for many uses. The larger embryo typical of triticales is related to rapid early growth as is a tolerance of low temperatures. Ryegrass/triticale mixes are being used as forage blends in some areas. The triticale provides good early growth forage where the ryegrass comes on later in the season to give good, full-season forage yields. Dual-purpose triticales are being developed that can be cut once at the first node stage (cut 1 cm above a palpable node) and still give yields nearly equivalent to uncut plants. All new triticale lines being developed have the more wheat-like compact head with a brittle racus. This should prevent some of the volunteer problems commonly observed when heads break apart in large pieces.

Some philosophy - Wolfgang explains the increase in world durum demand as a result of a societal decision in the European Economic Community. There are many small farmers in southern Europe (France, Italy, etc.) who need to be supported. Subsidies for durum production have been targeted to this area resulting in durum acreage being high but production low as these lands are marginal. Durum production has moved out of the more productive regions in Europe to the less productive hence there is an overall increase in demand per se.

INIFAP Wheat Breeding - Miguel Camacho Casas

Miguel is one of three INIFAP breeders working in Sonora. He evaluates CIMMYT materials for potential release as varieties in the Yaqui Valley. He stated that the shift toward durums began in the early 1980s as a way to reduce the level of Karnal bunt in the Valley as infection levels were increasing. Acreage at that time varies according to world prices. Now the strong export demand is driving durum production. He indicated that the growers in the Mayo Valley alone produced enough wheat to feed all of Mexico hence export markets will be an on-going concern for growers. INIFAP is also releasing bread wheats. These are medium-strength wheat for use in making French breads. Kansas HRW is being imported, both flour and grain, to fortify locally produced bread wheat flours. Varieties are released by INIFAP after they have three years of data in Yaqui testing and one year in other Sonora trials. On-farm trials are run in cooperation with growers. 500M x 8 row plots are typical. Growers plant and manage and researcher harvest.

Leaf rust resistance, Karnal bunt resistance, yield potential and quality are key selection criteria. Ability to tolerate late-planting (December-January) is also helpful. Once a variety is ready for release, INIFAP now does the basic (foundation) seed increase. Basic seed is then sold to grower groups for increase. There is growing interest in a royalty system in order to generate dollars for the research program but there is no defined system to date.

Funding for INIFAP efforts locally once came from the federal government, state and local growers directly to a specific station. There are four stations, one in each state, in NW Mexico. Now only salary money comes from the federal government. Operational dollars are routed through a foundation located in each state. Supposedly these foundations are to try to identify other funding sources as well. Local grower dollars (an 8 peso per Ha ($0.39US/a) fee for research is collected as part of the water permit process) used to be given directly to stations for the station to decide on use. The thought was that the growers would give their money to the foundation for distribution but what has happened is that the growers have now formed their own regional research committee and make their own decisions on how to spend their funds. Funding is a problem for the stations.

Farm Fields - Jesus Martinez Santana

We visited two farms under the guidance of Jesus. Don Oscar owned the first. His was an 80 Ha 198 acres) farm that had been in the family for over 70 years. He was raising 6 Ha (15 acres) of wheat as registered seed for one of the local farmer groups. He planted onto corn beds on December 9. 300 kg/Ha (268 lb/a) urea had been incorporated prior to seeding and they estimate that 50 kg/Ha (45 lb/a) N was left over from the corn. The wheat was seeded at 60 kg/ha (54 lb/a). Four one-foot irrigations had been applied at 40, 70, 90 and 100 days post planting. They were expecting a 6 MT/Ha (90 bu/a) yield. Basic seed sells for 9000 pesos per MT ($0.49US/lb), certified for 2500 ($0.13US/lb) and commercial 2000 ($0.11US/lb). Don Oscar also raised corn and soybeans.

We next visited a 300 Ha (740 acre) farm owned by a family group. They were growing corn, cotton, wheat, safflower and chickpeas (a large seeded type for export to Spain). Safflower is a low water use crop that gets only a preplanting, soil profile filling irrigation. It’s roots go to groundwater. Chickpeas are irrigated similarly but are shallow rooted and tend to "burn up" in dry parts of a field. Mexican safflowers are higher yielding than US types but contain saturated oil versus polyunsaturated. The US types have a higher value.

Lessons Learned and Miscellaneous

Don’t try to enter Mexico with an expired passport, especially if you get the grumpy, older customs inspector in Hermosillo. Buy your cervesa at the street side shops – it’s cheaper than the hotel bar. If going to the hotel bar, take earplugs. Wait until happy hour (after 9 PM) to buy margaritas and don’t ask for a strawberry margarita- this tips the locals to the fact that you are not a native. Jose Cuervo Gold Label tequila is considered an export quality product – in other words rotgut. Buy the stuff made with 100% agave – Don Julio, Herradura, Las Trancas, Jose Cuervo Tradicional. Two group members conducted a turf inspection. Turf inspection fees are $35US. Experience has a four-peso advantage over youth in turf inspections at a peso per inspection. Alamos is a lovely city and well worth the visit but don’t buy rocks from Candystripe Joe. Mexican jumping beans, a major export of Alamos, are not in season in April. Goat, especially grilled, is not too bad if you have lots of cervesa to go with it. Vegetarians probably don't fare well in Sonora. Unless you like drinking homogenized lawn clippings, don’t drink the cactus juice for breakfast. Refrigeration in meat markets may be beneficial, at least psychologically, for gringos. Don’t watch as the small street-side eatery people prepare your food. You may think yourself into being ill. Picking a high priced item on a menu you can't read will usually get you something good to eat except in a fish restaurant. In a Mexican fish restaurant never order something off a menu that you can’t read or at least get a charades version of what it might be from the waitress – you may get Mexican sushi!